The Bolomor Cave is located on the central Mediterranean coast of Spain, in the town of Tavernes in the Valencian Community. Specifically, the cave is in the Valldigna Valley, a narrow and short valley bordered by the Iberian mountain range to the north and the Prebetic mountain range to the south. Northeast of the site, the coast runs almost perpendicular to the valley, and its base runs along the Vaca River. The cave is situated approximately 100 m above sea level.

The stratigraphic sequence of Bolomor Cave has been divided by sedimentological study into 17 levels numbered from the top of the deposit and with a maximum thickness of 14 m (Fumanal, 1995). The karstic deposit of Bolomor Cave has been dated by Amino Acid Racemization (AAR) and Thermoluminescence (TL) to between MIS 9 and MIS 5e. Several TL dates have been obtained: 121 ± 18 Ky for Level II, 225 ± 34 Ky for Level XIII and 233 ± 35 Ky for Level XIV. AR dates have also been made: 228 ± 53 Ky for Level XIII and 525 ± 125 Ky for Level XVII. Therefore, Level IV involves an ante quem time of 121 ± 18 Ky from TL and Magnetic Susceptibility (Fernández Peris, 2007) (Fig. 1).

The lithic industry is elaborated mainly in flint and is characterised by the production of flakes. The majority of the retouched artefacts are scrapers and lateral denticulates. The raw materials also consist of limestone and quartzite, which come from marine, colluvial and fluvial stones. The Level IV industry consists mainly of small tools, predominantly scrapers, denticulates and various retouched pieces. The tools are characterised by intensive re-use and recycling of lithics at Level IV (Cuartero, 2008). This technocomplex is older than the regional Classic Mousterian age and has its beginning at some point during the Middle Pleistocene age, under the consideration of an Ancient Middle Palaeolithic, although it is not related to the Acheulian age (Fernández Peris, 2007).

The biostratigraphic sequence is mainly characterised by Cervus elaphus and Equus ferus and at certain times, by other species such as Hemitragus cedrensis, Hemitragus bonali, Dama sp., Megaloceros giganteus, Sus scrofa, Macaca sylvana, Equus hydruntinus, Bos primigenius, Stephanorhinus hemitoechus, Palaeoloxodon antiquus, Hippopotamus amphibius and Castor fiber. Although fossil remains of Ursus arctos, Ursus thibetanus, Canis lupus, Panthera leo spelaea, Lynx pardina, Vulpes vulpes and Meles meles have been documented, carnivore remains are rare (Blasco, 2011, Blasco et al., 2010, Martínez Valle, 2001 and Sarrión and Fernández Peris, 2006).

At present, several combustion structures have been documented at levels II, IV, XI and XIII of Bolomor Cave. The hearths are morphologically simple with plain bases and they are not superimposed. Their appearance is lenticular, with diameters between 30 to 120 cm and an average thickness of 5 to 10 cm. In general, they are primary facies hearths and contain pseudomorphs of vegetal ash at different burning stages (Fernández Peris et al., 2012).

The Level IV faunal remains were classified to both specific and anatomical levels. The Number of Remains (NR) or Number of Identified Specimens (NISP), Minimum Number of Elements (MNE), Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) and skeletal survival rate (Brain, 1981 and Lyman, 1994) were calculated. The MNE was calculated taking into account age, portion and size. The skeletal survival rate estimates the proportion between the elements recovered and those expected (Brain, 1969). The following formula was used to calculate the skeletal survival rate:

%Survival _i  = MNE × 100/number of element _i in the animal skeleton × MNI.

To determine the age at death of the animals, the best indicator in this study was tooth replacement and dental wear for ungulates and carnivores (Azorit et al., 2002 and Silver, 1969). Nevertheless, the degree of development and fusion of the epiphyses of the limb bones was also used in some cases (Silver, 1969), especially on leporid remains (Cochard, 2004, Jones, 2006 and Sanchis Serra, 2010). The following age groups were established for rabbits: infantile (less than 2/3 months), juvenile (2/3 to 9 months) and adult (more than 9/10 months).

Bone breakage was analysed and classified according to Villa and Mahieu (1991). The outline (transverse, curved/V-shaped, longitudinal), fracture angle (oblique, right, mixed) and surface edge (smooth, jagged) were recorded. The breaks on the small animal bones were classified as either being old (at or near the time of deposition) or new (during or after excavation) (Steadman et al., 2002). The new breaks were well defined by colour changes in the section of bone. In either case, the outline and the fracture angle were also taken into account. The high proportion of broken and partial bones makes specific identifications difficult, but bone fragments were included in size categories related to the estimated body weight of individuals identified in the assemblage, following the criteria established by Bunn (1986) and modified by Díez et al. (1999): very small size or size 1 (< 20 kg); small size or size 2 (100–20 kg); medium size or size 3A and 3B (300–100 kg); large size or size 4 (1000–300 kg); very large size or size 5 (> 1000 kg).

Surface modifications were treated at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. All of the skeletal remains recovered were examined using a binocular magnifier (OPTHEC HZ, up to 120). In some cases, bone remains were also analysed with an Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (FEI Quanta 600). Damage observed on the faunal remains included cut-marks, intentional bone breakage, burning and carnivore and human tooth-marks. The following types of cut-marks were identified at Level IV according to descriptions made by several authors (Binford, 1981, Bromage and Boyde, 1984, Noe-Nygaard, 1989, Potts and Shipman, 1981 and Shipman and Rose, 1983): incisions, scrapes and chopmarks. The analysis took into account the number of striations, location on the anatomical element, distribution over the surface (isolated, clustered, crossed), orientation with respect to the longitudinal axis of the bone (oblique, longitudinal, transverse) and delineation (straight or curved).

Bone damage caused during the breakage was also analysed, and the diagnostic elements of anthropogenic breakage were documented on faunal remains. The following elements were recorded: percussion pits or percussion marks, percussion notches, impact flakes, countercoup (Capaldo and Blumenschine, 1994 and Pickering and Egeland, 2006), adhering flakes (Díez et al., 1999) and peeling (White, 1992).

Thermal-modifications were also identified at Level IV (e.g. Buikstra and Swegle, 1989, Guillon, 1987, Nicholson, 1993 and Shipman et al., 1984). The skeletal remains progress through different colour stages (mainly from brown, black, and grey to white) and physical alterations during exposure to fire (Correia, 1997 and Mayne, 1997). The burning modifications documented are arranged in 6 degrees (from degree 0 or unburned, to degree 5 or calcined).

The carnivore tooth-marks identified on bone remains from Bolomor Cave were mainly pits, punctures and scores (e.g. Binford, 1981, Blumenschine, 1995, Haynes, 1980, Haynes, 1983 and Stiner, 1994). The analysis of tooth-marks also took into account the number, location and distribution on the anatomical element. To estimate the size of the carnivore involved, measurements of the pits’ widths and lengths were taken using the criteria described by Selvaggio and Wilder (2001), Domínguez-Rodrigo and Piqueras (2003) and Delaney-Rivera et al. (2009). In the case of small animals, these marks were compared with human tooth-marks (Landt, 2007, Laroulandie, 2000, Laroulandie, 2005, Pérez Ripoll, 2005 and Sanchis Serra, 2010) and with non-human predator marks (e.g. Andrews, 1990, Andrews and Evans, 1983, Bochenski et al., 2009, Cochard, 2004, Hockett, 1996, Hockett, 1999, Laroulandie, 2000, Lloveras et al., 2008a, Lloveras et al., 2008b, Lloveras et al., 2009, Mayhew, 1976, Sanchis Serra, 2000 and Schmitt, 1995).

Level IV provided 25323 faunal remains. From these, 2864 have been attributed to 28 taxa, which include the categories of Cercopithecinae, Carnivora, Ungulata and small prey (Leporidae, Aves, Testudinidae, Amphibia and Salmonidae). The MNE is mostly represented by mandibles in carnivores, metapodials, tibiae and phalanges in ungulates; and humeri, femuri, metapodials and phalanges in the case of small prey. In general, basipodials and acropodials are represented by few elements in all of the species from the faunal assemblage. The MNI is 99 and was established from the most common skeletal element according to species and age at death. This is mostly characterised by leporids (20), tortoises (19), birds (15) and red deer (12). These species represent 66.6% of the individuals documented in the faunal assemblage, although small animals represent only 54.5% of the MNI total.

Regarding the age at death of the animals, one group, adult individuals, is clearly predominant over the rest at Level IV with a total of 83 animals (83.8%) (Table 1). The skeletal survival rate assesses the proportion between the recovered elements and those expected from the MNI. Thus, the anatomical representation obtained is valid to observe the elements absent in the assemblage. This rate indicates a biased skeletal representation in all of the taxa in the assemblage. This selection of elements is essentially characterised by cranial elements (mainly mandibles and maxillaries) and by stylopodials and zeugopodials in ungulates. For small prey, such as lagomorphs, all of the skeletal elements are represented, although hindlimbs and forelimbs show dominance over the rest of the skeletal portions, followed by pelvic girdles. Regarding birds, the anatomical elements with the highest survival are coracoid and tibiotarsus. By contrast, cranium, carina/sternum, ribs, and vertebrae are absent in the assemblage. In the case of tortoises, the anatomical elements with the highest survival are humeri, femuri and plastron (Blasco, 2008) (Table 2).

Following the criteria established by Villa and Mahieu (1991), the degree of bone breakage at Level IV indicates that bones were mainly fractured in the fresh state, and curved fractures (45.4%) and smooth edges (75.2%) are predominant. Diagnostic elements of anthropogenic bone breakage are documented on the majority of species with percussion pits, percussion notches, impact flakes, adhering flakes, counterblows and peeling being present. C. elaphus and large- and medium-sized animals are the most affected (72.4%). Bone breakage is mainly focused on the appendicular skeleton, specifically on stylopodials, zeugopodials and metapodials (96.8%). In the case of tortoises, three diagnostic elements of anthropogenic breakage are identified: percussion pits or percussion marks (3), percussion notches (2) and impact flakes (8). Two percussion pits and two percussion notches are located on the carapace (neural bone) and one percussion mark on the plastron (hypoplastron). Impact flakes of the shell are identified and situated on neural (2) and costal bones (3), and three impact flakes are also located on hypoplastron (Blasco, 2008) (Table 3) (Fig. 2). To fracture the leporid and bird bones, the human groups of Level IV probably used their teeth, as no diagnostic elements of fracturing by active or passive percussion are identified. In total, 31 bones of Oryctolagus cuniculus and 20 belonging to several species of birds (Galliformes, Phasianidae, Corvidae, Columba sp., Anas sp., Aythya sp. and Pyrrhocorax sp.) show human tooth-marks in form of small pits associated with broken edges, longitudinal fissures and peeling. In some cases, human tooth-marks take the form of crenulated edges. Similarly, these marks are also observed on tortoise remains, specifically on 15 limb bones (humerus, femur and tibia) and 1 fragment belonging to the pelvic girdle. In general, human tooth-marks are related to the removal of meat and fat from the bones. In the case of lagomorphs, these marks are also associated with the marrow removal and cartilage consumption.

As a result of fracturing, patterns can be observed on different skeletal elements of small prey in form of diaphyseal cylinders and isolated ends. For example, the bone fragments belonging to the humerus, femur and tibia of lagomorphs mainly correspond to the distal and proximal part of these bones, and in the case of birds, the bone fragments belonging to tibiotarsus mainly correspond to the distal part of this bone. Bone breakage near ends or joint areas leads to diaphyseal cylinders of the humerus, femur and tibia and the presence of longitudinal bone fragments. Sanchis Serra (2010) observed similar breakage patterns on leporid remains from a Level IV sample to those presented here.

Cut-marks are also identified on 7.2% of the bone remains and are present on all identified species in the assemblage including carnivores, ungulates and small prey (Table 4). At Level IV, incisions are the principal type of modification, although scrapes and sawing marks are also documented. These striae are located on different anatomical portions depending on their type. For example, oblique and longitudinal incisions are mainly situated on limb bone diaphysis, and transversal sawing marks are mainly located on limb bone metaphyses. These marks are predominant on medium- and large-sized taxa. In small animals, these marks are observed on 111 remains of O. cuniculus, 32 bones of birds and 49 bones of tortoises. In lagomorphs, incisions are predominant on the diaphysis of metapodials and the first phalanx. These incisions are related to skinning. Cut-marks are also located on the metaphysis and diaphysis of both forelimbs and hindlimbs, and sporadic incisions are observed on several flat bones (mandible, scapula and pelvis). In the case of tortoises, cut-marks are mainly identified on the carapace with a predominance of the incisions and scrapes on the ventral surface of the costal shield. In birds, cut-marks are mainly documented on the coracoid and tibiotarsus with a predominance of incisions on the diaphysis (Fig. 3).

Burning is identified on 61.5% of the faunal remains at Level IV (Table 5). This modification is observed on all of the skeletal elements with definite predominance on long bones of medium- and small-sized animals. O. cuniculus and Testudo hermanni are the most affected small prey. The remains of 481 lagomorphs and 333 bones attributed to tortoises show evidence of burning. In the case of lagomorphs and birds, the highest grades of burning on bones with double colouration coincide with the areas of the skeleton with less muscle (mainly joints of limb bones). For example, in the case of birds, the highest grade of burning is observed on the head of the proximal joint of the humerus, on the distal extremity of the tibiotarsus and on the distal part of the ventral (palmar) surface of the ulna and the radius. In tortoises, the carapace is the most affected element, and degree 2 is the most abundant modification type. By contrast, degree 4 is the least represented modification type. Double colouration is also observed on 12.1% of the burned tortoise remains. This is mainly documented on the carapace (70.1%). Double colourations identified on faunal remains from Level IV do not coincide with those described by Bennett (1999) for bones burned after burial.

Finally, the incidence of carnivore damage on the faunal assemblage from Level IV is very low. Only 0.5% of bone remains show alterations generated by these non-human predators. Specifically, carnivore damage is identified on 142 fragments: Carnivora indet. (1), P. leo spelaea (1), Equus ferus (3), S. scrofa (2), Dama sp. (1), C. elaphus (12), B. primigenius (8), Hemitragus cedrensis (4), O. cuniculus (10), very large (2), large (31), medium (55) and small-sized animals (12).

Pits and scores are the most abundant alteration types. Nevertheless, two lagomorph bones show low degrees of digestion. The metric study based on tooth pit sizes according to the bone type (cancellous and dense cortical) suggests the presence of small and medium-sized carnivores during the Level IV formation, although four large puncture marks may be related to the sporadic presence of large carnivores, such as bears or wolves.

A high specific diversity is observed in the faunal assemblage from Level IV. Evidence of anthropogenic processing is observed not only on ungulates but also on small prey (rabbits, birds and tortoises) and, to a lesser extent, on carnivores. These modifications have enabled us to reconstruct the human consumption sequence of recovered animals.

In the case of large- and medium-size animals, several elements provide information about the methods used to obtain them. These elements include the skeletal representation of the animals identified in the assemblage (e.g. Binford, 1981, Brain, 1981, Lyman, 1994 and Stiner, 1994), the age at death of the animals (Gaudzinski and Roebroeks, 2000) and the location of processing marks on the carcasses, including the location and purpose of the cut-marks, presence of carnivore tooth-marks and overlapped marks (e.g. Binford, 1981, Blasco and Rosell, 2009, Bunn, 1981, Domínguez-Rodrigo and Barba, 2006, Domínguez-Rodrigo and Pickering, 2003, Marean and Kim, 1998 and Shipman and Rose, 1983). From this perspective, the Level IV faunal record is characterised by a systematic proportion of skeletal elements with a high medullar value, a predominance of adult animals, cut-marks related to viscera removal and oblique and longitudinal incisions on the diaphyses of the limb bones associated with defleshing of large muscle masses, and low carnivore damage. All of these elements suggest that the anthropogenic access to these animals was mainly primary and immediate. In spite of this, occasional events of secondary access have also been documented from overlapped marks (Blasco, 2011 and Blasco and Rosell, 2009).

The skeletal representation and bone alterations of lagomorphs and birds do not coincide entirely with those described in several studies on raptor and carnivore accumulations (e.g. Andrews, 1990, Andrews and Evans, 1983, Bochenski and Tomek, 1997, Bochenski and Tornberg, 2003, Bochenski et al., 2009, Bramwell et al., 1987, Cochard, 2004, Hockett, 1996, Hockett, 1999, Hockett and Haws, 2002, Laroulandie, 2000, Lloveras et al., 2008a, Lloveras et al., 2008b, Lloveras et al., 2009, Mayhew, 1976, Mourer-Chauviré, 1983, Sanchis Serra, 2000, Sanchis Serra, 2010, Schmitt, 1995 and Trapani et al., 2006). On the other hand, the skeletal survival rate of tortoise remains does coincide with the rate described by Sampson (2000) for anthropogenic accumulations generated by Bushmen in the semi-arid Karoo of South Africa. All of these characteristics, in addition to the presence of anthropogenic evidence in form of cut-marks, burning on the ends of appendicular elements (areas of the skeleton with less meat) and human tooth-marks, show sufficient evidence to attribute the presence of small prey to human activity at Level IV.

However, ascertaining the method of obtaining small prey is a difficult subject. Recognising snares and traps in the archaeological record is difficult because they are generally made from materials that do not preserve well. Nevertheless, Wadley (2010) aims to tackle this matter through ethnographic observations and their corresponding archaeological applications. For this author, a high frequency of small prey, an extensive taxonomic diversity of animals susceptible to being captured by these systems, and a wide range of ages at death and the presence of small carnivores with evidence of human processing constitute sufficient diagnostic elements to prove the presence of trapping systems in the archaeological assemblages. Still, there are significant limitations. For Wadley (2010), the type of prey conditions the possibility of identifying its method of capture. For instance, a wide variety of bird species with different ages at death could correspond not only to the use of traps but also to occasional natural phenomena such as storms or strong winds (Avery and Underhill, 1986 and De France, 2005). Therefore, it is not possible to determinate from the present evidence whether these birds were trapped or simply gathered as the occasional victims of these weather processes. However, some gregarious animals, such as European lagomorphs, which are abundant, prolific reproducers and live in easily detectable, densely packed warrens, may be susceptible to mass collection (Hockett and Bicho, 2000, Jones, 2006 and Lupo and Schmitt, 2002).

Regarding the age at death, Jones (2006) states that individual trapping of lagomorphs by any method is reflected in an age profile dominated by adults, while the age profile in a leporid assemblage trapped or mass collected from warrens is dominated by immature individuals. In the case of Level IV, the adult lagomorphs are the most abundant. Nevertheless, four immature individuals with anthropogenic modifications are also identified among the estimated 20. This fact, combined with the presence of small carnivores with evidence of human processing (Vulpes vulpes, Lynx pardina and infantile P. leo spelaea), the high percentage of small prey and the high taxonomic diversity could suggest the occasional presence of some kind of trap-based leporid capturing system. However, this technique would not be the most commonly used at Bolomor Cave. The predominant presence of adult individuals could also suggest the existence of techniques related to the individual capture of animals. In spite of this, we must take into consideration that the normal condition of palimpsest identified not only at Bolomor Cave but also at most sites of the Middle and Upper Pleistocene could disguise the occasional use of traps (or mass collecting) during the assemblage formation. From this reasoning, we cannot rule out the possibility that these methods were occasionally used among the human groups of Level IV and that, because they were sporadic, they were practically imperceptible within an assemblage mainly composed of several events.

In any case, the different types of small prey identified at Bolomor Cave may suggest several degrees of difficulty in their individual capture (Stiner, 2001). Slow-moving animals, such as tortoises, would represent the simplest category to catch, while fast-moving animals, such as leporids and birds, would be hardest to capture. Therefore, the collection of this variety of small prey at Level IV requires the development of different strategies to obtain them, which should also be different from those used for the capture of larger animals.

From the location of cut-marks, percussion impacts and burning grades on portions and specific anatomical elements, the human sequence of processing and consumption has been reconstructed. The carcasses are usually skinned from the skull to the metapodial and, in some cases, to the first or second phalanx. Only one H. amphibious remain has documented evidence of this activity on a third phalanx. After skinning, the viscera are extracted. This activity seems to be under-represented due to the low representation of the axial skeleton in the faunal assemblage and to the frequent use of hands in this process. However, occasionally, human groups did carry axial elements that enable us to identify this activity. To access the viscera of tortoises, the carapace or plastron must be fractured. At Level IV, percussion marks and notches and impact flakes have been identified on the neural and costal bones of the carapace and on the hypoplastron. Similarly, and although the use of hands could cause this activity to be under-represented, the presence of scrapes on the ventral surface of the shells indicates the use of stone tools to remove the tissue adhered to the plates (Blasco, 2008). Cut-marks related to the removal of the viscera were also identified at the Oldowan site of FwJJ20 in the East Turkana Basin of northern Kenya (Braun et al., 2010), at the Early Pleistocene site of Sima del Elefante in Spain (Blasco et al., 2011), in subsequent periods at Pinnacle Point Cave 13B in the western Cape of South Africa (Thompson, 2010) and at a modern camp (Site 20) located on the eastern shore of Lake Turkana (Rybczynski et al., 1996).

Burning alterations identified on the faunal remains may suggest the presence of several processes, such as the existence of thermal treatment of the meat, the development of possible cleaning activities or the preparation of bones to facilitate their breakage. Double colouration on the same bone surface has been recorded, which suggests a differential preservation of the meat at the moment it is exposed to fire. The least affected areas are those that present a greater quantity of muscle and a lower degree of cremation, while the most affected are those that hardly have any tissue attached and therefore reach the highest degrees of colouration. This phenomenon allows us to infer that the meat was roasted prior to the removal of the bone (Fig. 4). The presence of uniform double colouration on the same cortical surface rules out a priori the thermal alteration of the bones after they were buried (Bennett, 1999). This fact is reinforced by the absence of thermally altered remains underneath the hearths. The presence of differential thermal alterations on the ends of lagomorph and bird bones also suggests the fact that the meat was cooked before its removal. This phenomenon is also observed by Sanchis Serra (2010) during the analysis of a sample of lagomorph remains at the same level. The phenomenon is also described by several researchers at both experimental and archaeological levels at sites of the Upper Palaeolithic of Western Europe (Cassoli and Tagliacozzo, 1997, Laroulandie, 2000, Laroulandie, 2005 and Vigne and Balasse, 2004).

Despite this, double colouration on different sides of the bone is also documented. Although these colourations are registered in a low percentage (1.6%), their presence allows us to infer the existence of other processes, which may not be related to the cooking of the meat (cleaning activities or simply unintended actions that lead to the burning of the bones once they have been broken). However, the identified remains with the highest proportion of these modifications are the shells of T. hermanni.

Although there is a certain degree of variability, these alterations seem to describe a pattern based on differential burning of the bone surface (with a greater degree of burning on the dorsal surface than on the ventral surface). This phenomenon has been interpreted as a result of cooking these animals before consumption. The characteristics of double colouration indicate that the tortoise could have been placed into the fire upside down (Blasco, 2008). This pattern has been described ethnographically by Werner (1990) for the preparation of tortoises by the Kayapó of Central Brazil. For several authors, this fact represents a diagnostic element to identify the human consumption of tortoises (Flannery and Wheeler, 1986, Sampson, 1998, Speth and Tchernov, 2002 and Stahl and Oyuela-Caycedo, 2007).

Defleshing and disarticulation are activities that are often developed simultaneously (Binford, 1981, Potts and Shipman, 1981, Shipman and Rose, 1983 and Shipman et al., 1984). The meat removal on proximal appendicular elements is performed following a certain grade of systematisation. Cut-marks can be divided into two groups based on their type and location. These might correspond to two phases in the defleshing process: extraction of large muscle masses that generates oblique and longitudinal incisions on the shaft; removal of the soft tissues attached to bone after the removal of large meat segments that involves transverse and oblique sawing marks on the metaphyses.

Nevertheless, the physiological characteristics of the animals and the morphology of the bones themselves could condition the location and repetition of cut-marks on certain areas of the bone. It has not been possible to establish an action sequence for flat bones. The presence of several cut-mark types and a high variability of areas where these striae are located hamper the identification of different phases in the defleshing.

However, the meat is not only extracted through the use of lithic tools. Humans also use their teeth to deflesh animals or consume marrow, fat and cartilage of leporids, birds and tortoises. This method often generates high fragmentation, which conforms to well-established morphotypes. In the case of the lagomorphs, the bone breakage (to access the marrow) consists of separating the epiphysis from the diaphyses of the stylopodials and zeugopodials. For this reason, documentation of fragmented shafts or diaphyseal cylinders is common, with the tibia being the skeletal element that illustrates this process best. This standardisation process is also recorded in the lagomorph sample studied by Sanchis Serra (2010) at the same level and at different sites of the European Upper Palaeolithic (e.g. Allué et al., 2010, Aura et al., 2002, Aura et al., 2009, Bicho et al., 2000, Bicho et al., 2006, Davis et al., 2007, Haws, 2003, Hockett, 2006, Hockett and Haws, 2002, Pérez Ripoll, 2004, Pérez Ripoll, 2005 and Pérez-Ripoll and Martínez-Valle, 2001) and even among some groups of hunter-gatherers such as the Aché of eastern Paraguay (Jones, 1983). In the breakage of bird remains, the articular portions also tend to separate from the middle-shaft, although, depending on the skeletal element, the fracture may be located on either the proximal or distal diaphysis. This variation could be the result of either a disarticulation or the consumption of marrow and/or cartilage (Laroulandie, 2000 and Lefèvre and Pasquet, 1994). Because of the limited marrow content, it is possible that the breakage of coracoid, scapula and perhaps the proximal end of humerus may correspond to the disarticulation processes of the forelimb. In contrast, the bone breakage patterns are well systematised on femuri and tibiotarsi and could indicate marrow removal. These skeletal elements have the highest marrow content, particularly during the breeding period in females (Driver, 1982 and Neer et al., 2002).

In ungulates, thermal treatment of the bones can facilitate their breakage (Bonfield and Li, 1966, Brain, 1981, Bunn and Blumenschine, 1987, Cáceres et al., 2002 and Noe-Nygaard, 1977). This fact would produce very low grades of burning (mainly grade 1) and a certain variation in both their fracture morphologies and angles (Cáceres et al., 2002). The bones exposed to high temperatures accelerate the drying process such that the outermost bone tissue loses its fresh state, while the innermost tissue keeps it intact. The result is a relative increase of the mixed angles similar to those observed at Level IV (50.1%). This fact, together with the presence of a low grade of burning, could suggest the use of heat to facilitate the fracturing of bones. However, the removal of the periosteum can also be performed to facilitate bone breakage (Binford, 1981, Binford, 1984, Potts and Shipman, 1981 and Shipman and Rose, 1983). At Level IV, two cases have been documented in which the scrape marks are located on the same side and portion of the percussion notch and pit. Therefore, it is possible that, at times, periosteum removal was performed with this aim, although this would not be a common process at Bolomor Cave. The fact that many of the bones are heat treated to facilitate the breakage implies the disappearance of this membrane. Therefore, the extraction of the periosteum would not be necessary.

Considering the available elements, two fracturing techniques can be suggested: active or thrown percussion and passive or direct percussion (Anconetani, 1999 and Giusberti and Peretto, 1991). Active or thrown percussion is produced when the skeletal element is hit directly against an object such as a stone, and passive or direct percussion is caused when the anatomical element is held on the ground or on an object that acts as an anvil and is hit with an instrument generally made of stone.

Because of the low representation of the axial skeleton in the faunal assemblage, peeling is not frequently documented. Data from the location of percussion impacts on specific portions and surfaces allow us to infer a standardised manner of fracturing ungulate skeletal elements. The majority of impacts is often located on the same portion and surface of the bones according to the appendicular skeletal element in question. Although some variability is to be expected, the humerus is generally fractured by the caudal side of the distal metaphysis, the radius by the lateral side of the diaphysis, the femur by the cranial side of the diaphysis, and the metapodium by the lateral and medial side of the diaphysis. The tibia registers higher variability according to the species. C. elaphus and B. primigenius show percussion impacts on the caudal side of the distal metaphysis and Equus ferus on the caudal side of the proximal metaphysis and diaphysis (Table 6). This systematic bone breakage could suggest the existence of certain social components, in which intergroup transmission and learning seem to be important elements.

Once the resources were used, fragmented bones were left and the smell given off by the remains could attract other predators that acted as scavengers in search of potentially consumable resources. The number and dimensions of the tooth-marks identified on bone remains may be due to the activity of small scavengers, probably small canids. However, at certain times, tooth-marks of larger dimensions have also been observed, which could be related to large predators such as bears and wolves. Further evidence that corroborates the marauding activity of carnivores at Level IV is the presence of overlapping marks on some ungulate remains. These marks represent carnivore tooth-marks situated over cut-marks.

Anthropogenic evidence on a high diversity of species has been identified at Level IV of Bolomor Cave. The spectrum of animals includes ungulates, lagomorphs, birds, tortoises and, occasionally, carnivores. Large and small carnivore consumption could be considered isolated cases in the faunal assemblage and obtaining them could be understood as a rare event rather than a systematic activity of the human groups at Level IV. In the case of herbivores, mainly represented by red deer, the systematic proportion of skeletal elements with high medullar value, a predominance of adult animals, cut-marks related to the viscera removal and oblique and longitudinal incisions on the diaphysis of the limb bones and low carnivore damage suggest that the anthropogenic access to animals was mainly primary and immediate. Nevertheless, sporadic events of secondary access could also occur. Regarding small prey, slow-moving animals and fast-running (mostly lagomorphs) and quick-flying small prey, were frequently captured at Level IV. Capturing these types of prey requires methods different from those used for large- and medium-sized animals. Although individual capture was the most probable technique used by human groups at Bolomor Cave, it is possible that certain trapping systems or mass collections could be used sporadically in the case of rabbits. At Level IV, the animals were often cooked before defleshing. Proof of this process is the presence of different burning grades on the same bone surface (double colouration), which are located on bone ends (areas of the skeleton with less meat) in the case of birds and lagomorphs. Regarding tortoises, a greater degree of burning on the dorsal surface than on the ventral surface is documented. This fact suggests that tortoises were placed into the fire upside down and roasted in their shell. Once the animals were cooked, the meat was extracted. Lithics were not the only tools used to extract the meat; human teeth were also used in the defleshing and consumption of cartilage, fat and marrow of small prey bones. This use led to bone breakage morphologies mainly represented by isolated epiphyses and diaphyseal cylinders. Although a certain grade of variability is to be expected, bone breakage shows a precise pattern on ungulates. From this perspective, human groups that occupied Bolomor cave during the Level IV formation show well-established processing patterns. The high diversity of species with anthropogenic alterations, and the intensive use of small animals suggest generalist behaviour based on a broad diet.